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In order to the investigation on the effects of methyl jasmonate on the secondary metabolites of Calendula officinalis L., the plants were grown in a modified Hogland (1/2) solution and were treated with 50 and 100 µm methyl jasmonate. The results indicated that jasmonate treatment decreased lignin content of root but increased lignin content of shoots, in comparison with those of the control plants. However, total content of wall-bound phenolics of roots increased and those of shoots decreased by jasmonate treatment. Anthocyanin content of shoot, decreased by methyl jasmonate. Likewise, flavonoid contents of shoots in both treatments were lower than those of the control plants. Lipid peroxidation rate of roots and shoots did not show significant changes in jasmonate treatments, compared to the control plants. In both control and jasmonate treated plants, α- Cadinol was the most abundant essential oils component. Induction of α-Muureloene with specific antifungal properties in the jasmonate treated plants and increase of it along with increase of jasmonate concentration, suggested that jasmonate can be used in order to induce modifications in secondary metabolism pathway of Calendula officinalis, resulting to produce desired medicinal compounds.

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Three different solvents namely; hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol were used in partitioning the extracts obtained from Piper guineense seeds and solvent extracts were investigated for the presence or absence of secondary metabolites. Extracts were further evaluated on adult maize weevils, Sitophilus zeamais. Experiment was carried out under laboratory conditions at 27 ± 2 °C ambient temperatures and 65 ± 5% relative humidity and was arranged in a completely randomised design in four replicates. Parameters assessed, including contact toxicity, repellent effects as well as effect of solvent extracts on the germination of maize seeds. Results obtained showed that the solvent extracts contained all the secondary metabolites tested except flavonoids and steroids. As well, all the solvent extracts were lethal and possessed high repellent action against S. zeamais, with ethanol fraction being the most potent. There was no significant difference in the germination of seeds treated with the solvent extracts as well as the ethanol control. The results obtained from this study reveal P. guineese as a potential candidate for bio insecticide and could serve as an alternative to synthetic insecticides.

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The present study was aimed to investigate the effects of secondary metabolites produced by five Trichoderma spp. on the control of Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris (FOC) in chickpea. In vitro biocontrol potentialities of Trichoderma spp. against FOC was tested. Trichoderma secondary metabolites were extracted by solvent extraction methods and evaluated against FOC. In vitro tests showed very good inhibitory effects by all Trichoderma spp. against FOC along with an inhibitory rate up to 73.8% and 27.8%, for direct and indirect contacts, respectively. Additionally, Trichoderma spp. caused a significant decrease in Fusarium wilt disease severity, in particular, T. polysporum showing 64.2% of disease severity reduction. The tested secondary metabolites were also effective against FOC with a significant decrease of mycelial growth from 6% to 76.9%. Similarly, in vivo tests revealed that secondary metabolites were very active in reducing disease severity. It was found that T. polysporum was the most active with 56.9% of disease severity reduction. Chickpea resistance is mostly attributed to polyphenolic compounds. The studied Trichoderma spp. and their secondary metabolites could be used as potential and promising antifungal agents in preventing the occurrence of Fusarium wilt in chickpea.
 

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The cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), is a destructive pest feeding on a diverse array of host plants. We studied the demographic parameters of H. armigera on artificial diets prepared from seeds of 10 corn Zea mays L. hybrids (KSC301, KSC403, KSC540, KSC600, KSC604, KSC704, KSC711, Maxima, NS770, and ZP677) using the age-stage, two-sex life table procedure. The results revealed that except for the incubation period, the Z. mays hybrids-mediated artificial diets significantly affected the length of the other immature stages. They also influenced the adult longevity, adult pre-oviposition period (APOP), total pre-oviposition period (TPOP), and oviposition days of H. armigera. Furthermore, the total fecundity of H. armigera was affected by Z. mays hybrids. Accordingly, the females reared on KSC711 with 503.31 eggs had the highest total fecundity. The highest net reproductive rate (R₀) (88.41 eggs/individual), the intrinsic rate of increase (r) (0.109 day^-1), and finite rate of increase (λ) (1.115 day^-1) were observed on KSC711. Our results provided valuable information regarding the life cycle of H. armigera on an artificial diet substrate prepared from different Z. mays hybrids. It was also revealed that although H. armigera had no significant differences in life table parameters on most hybrids, some of them, such as KSC711, were very susceptible to damage. One of the issues that emerged from these findings is the possibility of using some hybrids, e.g., KSC711, in the preparation of semi-artificial diets for this pest.

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Steroids are one of the most important and abundant secondary metabolites of marine sponges. The aim of this study was to investigate the antibacterial properties of steroidal fractions derived from the Persian Gulf sponge Axinella sinoxea. Extraction was first done by Acetone and then the fractions were separated through column chromatography with silica gel. Identification of steroidal fractions were done by thin layer chromatography (TLC) and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Then, antibacterial properties of steroids were identified and minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were investigated by tubular dilution. Two types of steroids including Stigmasta-5,24(28)-dien-3-ol,(3β-24Z) and Ergosta-5,22-dien-3-ol,(3β,22E,24S) were determined. The extracted steroids showed different results regarding the growth inhibition and bactericidal effect on Gram negative (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Vibrio harveyi) and Gram positive (Micrococcus roseus and Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria at different experimental doses. In conclusion, promising results were found regarding the antimicrobial effects of the extracted steroids of the marine sponge from Larak island A. sinoxea. These findings reveal the necessity of more comprehensive investigations for the synthesis of pharmaceutical and antibiotic materials from the  bioactive compounds.

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Aims: The objective of this study was to compare growth parameters and phenol content of different safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) cultivars and one wild species of safflower (Carthamus oxyacantha) under urea fertilizer and vermicompost treatments, to distinguish can we use vermicompost instead of urea fertilizer.
Methods: The experiment was carried out under greenhouse conditions. A factorial randomized complete block design with seven replications was used. Experimental treatments were three vermicompost rate; three levels of nitrogen fertilizer; and three types of safflower.
Findings: The number of leaves, leaf area, fresh and dry biomass weights significantly increased with vermicompost application. Urea fertilizer only increased the plant height. The interaction between plant cultivars and vermicompost was significant for phenol content. All growth parameters of safflower except dry biomass weight were significantly different between cultivars. Conclusion: Wild safflower responded more than other cultivars to treatments so it can be used in plant breeding programs. Vermicompost treatment act better than urea fertilizer for growing of safflower, so it can be used instead of chemical fertilizer.
 

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Aims The secondary metabolites of plants have been considered due to their diversity and roles in plants and human health. Grapevine is one of the plants that have secondary compounds with medicinal properties. such compounds include resveratrol which is a phenolic compound from the stilbenoid group. In order to investigate the resveratrol production under the effect of an elicitor, a CRD design with four replications using Soltani cultivar was done.
Materials & Methods. The salicylic acid (SA) was used as an elicitor with variable concentrations including 0, 10^-4, 10^-5, 10^-6 and was introduced into MS medium without hormones to examine it`s stress effects. At the molecular level, the effect of SA on the expression of stilbene-synthase gene was evaluated by semi-quantitative RT-PCR. In the biochemical experiment, the rate of resveratrol production was measured by HPLC.
Findings Stilbene-synthase expression analysis showed that SA with a concentration of 10^-4 M had a positive and incremental effect on gene expression and showed a 35.48% of increase compared to the control state, and also the concentration of 10^-5 M increased the gene expression 5.65% in relation with control state. In the biochemical experiment, increasing in production of resveratrol was observed in 10^-4 M treatment compared to the control treatment (6.1 µg) and 10^-5 M treatment (3.25 µg) did not show a significant difference with the control sample.
Conclusion SA as an elicitor and stimulant of resveratrol production could enhance the expression of stilbene-synthase gene followed by enhancing the medicinal properties of the Vitis plant.

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This study was aimed to identify secondary metabolites produced by native Trichoderma harzianum isolates and investigate the effect of ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract of constituents extracted on seed germination and control of Alternaria blight disease. The phytochemical constituents of EtOAc extract of T. harzianum were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques. Also, the effects of foliar application, seed and soil treatments of EtOAc extract and its constituents: benzoic acid, palmitic acid and diisooctyl phthalate, on Alternaria blight disease index was investigated. All T. harzianum isolates were able to significantly reduce the mycelial growth of A. alternata by producing volatile and non-volatile metabolites. The major constituents of the EtOAc extract were 2-phenylethanol (14.36%), palmitic acid (12.07%), diisooctyl phthalate (11.23%), which have antifungal effects against A. alternata. The lowest values of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the EtOAc extract and its main constituents were in the range of 1,044-3,970 μg. mL^-1. The MIC value of the benzoic acid (1,044 μg. mL^-1) against A. alternata was lower than iprodione-carbendazim (1,391 μg. mL^-1) and mancozeb (1,600 μg. mL^-1). Combining benzoic acid with diisooctyl phthalate induced a synergistic activity against A. alternata and in combination with palmitic acid caused an additive effect. Seed treatment with EtOAc extract and/or benzoic acid significantly reduced the development of Alternaria blight disease of Cumin compared to foliar and soil applications. The seed treatment with EtOAc extract and palmitic acid significantly improves the seed germination by 11.34% and 9.57%, respectively. The findings provide new perspectives on the effect of the secondary metabolites produced by native T. harzianum isolates on the quality characteristics of seeds and the rate of soil-borne and seed-borne diseases progression caused by A. alternata.


 

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Nowadays, the use of tissue culture technique in the production of plant secondary metabolites, such as phenolic compounds, as a natural food additive has become very widespread in the food industry. The aim of this study was to investigate and compare the content of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of grapevine Rasha and Qzel Ozum cultivars that were produced by tissue culture under in vitro condition. For this purpose, the terminal buds of grape cultivars were cultured in Murashige - Skoog Medium to produce complete seedlings. Then the methanolic extract was prepared from healthy grapevine leaves and to perform polyphenol composition tests using high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detector, functional groups using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, total phenol content, total flavonoids, total anthocyanins, total carotenoids, acid content, ascorbic acid, free radical scavenging 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and hydroxyl  (OH⁻). The results showed that the amount of total phenolic compounds, total flavonoids, total anthocyanin and total carotenoids of methanolic extracts of Rasha cultivar were 50.35±0.10, 29.72±0.05, 10.41±0.20, and 1.82±0.50 mg/g, respectively, and in Qzel Ozum cultivar were 23.06±0.31, 20.76±0.15, 7.28±0.15, and 94.94±0.42 mg/g, respectively. Ascorbic acid, DPPH and OH⁻ free radicals scavenging activity in methanolic extracts of Rasha leaves were 1.83±0.04, 25.38±1.52, and 75.04±2.74 %, respectively, and in Qzel Ozum leaves were 0.85±0.01, 18.71±2.05 and 68.96±3.61 %, respectively. As a general result, the results showed that the grape leaves of the Rasha cultivar were more than the grapevine leaves of Qzel Ozum cultivar in terms of all studied characteristics (p <0.05). This study also showed that grape leaves are rich in phenolic compounds and natural antioxidants and have the potential to be used in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

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Xenorhabdus spp. bacteria are known to produce antifungal compounds that are highly efficacious against important plant pathogens such as Botrytis cinera. Generally, centrifuged and filtered supernatant or growth cultures are used to test effects of secondary metabolites of Xenorhabdus bacteria against different phytopathogens. We hypothesized that turning the bacterial supernatant into powder will increase the antifungal effects of the bioactive metabolite. Therefore, as a first step, we investigated and compared the effects of powder and liquid forms of antifungal metabolites of X. szentirmaii against B. cinerea. The powdered form of the supernatant was obtained using spray drying technology. The different doses of the powdered supernatant and their liquid equivalents were compared via in vitro assays. Our data indicated that the antifungal activity of the liquid Xenorhabdus supernatant was stronger than the powdered form in in vitro assays. We posit that during the pulverization process, some of the antifungal compounds in cell-free supernatants were either degraded or evaporated as the supernatants were subjected to high processing temperatures and pressure of the spray drying process. It is also possible that the powdered form of the supernatant did not dissolve well in PDA, so, the antifungal compound had limited contact with the tested fungal pathogen. Future studies should extract and purify the bioactive compound/s present in the supernatants of these bacteria and test their efficacy in ppm doses as powdered forms of these compounds have longer shelf-life and can be easily formulated compared to liquid supernatants.

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