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Nowadays, application of enhanced oil recovery methods has increased; therefore it’s necessary to determine their impacts on environment and human life. So, this research investigates the environmental impacts of conventional enhanced oil recovery methods and new methods such as using electromagnetic waves, ultrasound waves, and nanoparticles. The investigations show that electromagnetic waves and ultrasound can effectively remove many environmental pollutants. Characteristics of the wave and the type of formation determine that these waves have different effects on the formation, and efforts should be made to understand these effects to prevent damage to the formation. Nanoparticles can also reduce the quantity of pollutants in the environment. According to the mechanisms of entrapment of nanoparticles in the porous medium, they may remain in the reservoir and find their way to the underground water over time, so their environmental effects should be considered in the long term. A better knowledge of new methods of increasing oil extraction will lead to the identification and use of more suitable methods with less environmental effects (compared to conventional methods).

 

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In this study, sonochemical synthesis was used to prepare nanostructured HZSM-5 catalysts. The three most effective ultrasound related variables including ultrasound power, irradiation time, and sonication temperature were investigated. The combined effect of these variables on relative crystallinity and mean crystal size of HZSM-5 nanocatalysts was studied using a central composite design. Higher crystallinity and lower crystal size were obtained by increasing ultrasound power, irradiation time, and sonication temperature while there was an optimum range for mentioned variables. The maximum relative crystallinity and minimum mean crystal size were obtained as 55.51% and 62.37 nm, respectively, under the optimal conditions of ultrasound power (231 W), irradiation time (21.18 min), and sonication temperature (42.68 °C). The results confirmed that sonochemical method considerably increased crysatllinity and reduced crystal size of HZSM-5 nanocatalysts at lower time. Hydrothermal method produced catalyst with full crystallinity and mean crystal size of 893 nm with 120 min aging and 48 h crystallization in autoclave while sonicated HZSM-5 catalyst with 21 min sonication and 4 h crystallization has 55.51% crystllinity and 62.37 nm mean crystal size. On the other hand, no HZSM-5 phase was formed in hydrothermal method with 120 min aging and 4 h crystallization in autoclave. These results strongly suggests that a catalyst with smaller crystal size, higher crystallinity and BET surface area at lower crystallization time can be obtained by using ultrasound instead of aging step in HZSM-5 synthesis

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 The effect of different extraction methods (soxtec apparatus, ultrasound, solvent and wet rendering) on yield, quality and fatty acids composition of oil extracted from the offal of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was compared. For determination of the oil quality, PV, TBA, FFA, conjugated diene, non-enzymatic browning indexes and fatty acids composition were measured. Results showed that soxtec apparatus had the highest efficiency compared to other extraction methods. In addition, ultrasound extraction had higher yield in comparison to solvent methods. Moreover, the wet rendering method had lower oil yield. The quality indexes of oil extracted with ultrasound had significantly lower quality compared to other extraction methods. Hence, the oil extracted with wet rendering methods had better quality. Oil extracted with all of the methods contained high amounts of MUFA, also oil extracted by ultrasound method had the highest content of DHA and EPA as compared with other extraction methods.

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One of the challenges in non-destructive testing schemes using the ultrasound pulse-echo technique is to identify those defects whose sizes are less than or equal to the detection resolution that is dependent on the width of the ultrasound pulse. Existing methods also require a reference specimen of the same defective material, which may not be available in some cases. We present a new method for detecting and identifying such defects. In the proposed approach, each layer of the test specimen is modeled as a linear time invariant (LTI) filter, and therefore, each defect is characterized by its corresponding impulse response. We use a combination of time gating and system identification techniques to detect and identify the defects, and as such, do not require a reference specimen. To demonstrate the performance of the proposed approach, we tested metallic blocks in which specific defects were impregnated. Results show that the proposed method can detect such defects, does not depend on the test set-up (including the ultrasound transducer), does not require a reference specimen, and is capable of detecting several defects situated in different depth on top of each other

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  Gluten strength is the major factor affecting mixing characteristics, extensibility, elasticity, and stability of dough. Wheat bug injects a protease enzyme into immature wheat kernels while feeding. This enzyme remains in flour made from bug damaged wheat and, in dough, digests gluten to produce slack, sticky dough and poor quality bread. The effect of sonication conditions on dough rheology  affected by protease inactivation in flour made from bug damaged wheat were investigated. Results showed that sonication with 70% amplitude in 5 min maintained rheological properties of dough. Sonication improved water absorbtion, dough stability, extensibility, and resistance to extension. Bread baked from bug damaged flour treated by sonication had better color, texture, specific volume, and appearance.

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In this study the combined effect of ultrasound and heat on inactivation of pectin methylesterase (PME) in fresh orange juice was investigated. To this end fresh orange juice was sonicated at 50, 60, 70 and 80 °C for 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes at various acoustic amplitudes and constant frequency of 30 kHz and the residual activity of PME was then measured. The results showed that ultrasound had a synergistic effect on heat resulting in an increase in the inactivation of PME. However, calculation of kinetic parameters and reaction constants indicated that increasing temperature decreased cavitation intensity and hence contribution of ultrasonic waves to PME inactivation. On the other hand, the acoustic amplitude level was found to initially increase and then diminish the rate of enzyme inactivation. In this article these changes are explained by activation parameters of DS^# and DH^#  and possible mechanisms for ultrasonic inactivation of PME are discussed.

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  Pomegranate seed oil is rich in functionally and nutritionally important compounds and hence has a wide application in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. In this study the effect of high power ultrasonic waves and pretreatment method on the extraction efficiency of oil from pomegranate seeds was investigated at a frequency of 20 kHz. Variables in question were extraction procedure at 2 levels (solvent extraction with and without ultrasound), extraction time at 3 levels (30, 45 and 60 minutes) and pretreatment of seeds and sample preparation at 6 levels (grinding, soaking and grinding, sonication and grinding, soaking, sonication and grinding, grinding, sonication and dehydration, and soaking, grinding, sonication and dehydration). The results showed that ultrasound significantly increased the extraction efficiency with no effect on the composition of fatty acids and their quantitative values. It was also found that pretreatment of whole seeds by sonicating them in hot water led to highest extraction efficiency. Moreover, the extraction time decreased to 30 min in the presence of ultrasound waves.

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In the recent years application of safe methods for flour bleaching instead of chemical agents, such as benzoyl peroxide, is concerned. The researchers showed that ultrasound exposure could be used to improve the oxidation process by aeration. In this study, at first the effect of sonication condition, amplitude (20,50,70% ) and  time (1,3,5 min) and then the effect of soy flour in three levels (4,8,12 %) on color(L^* ,a^*  ,b^*  values),porosity, staling and sensory properties of pan bread were investigated. Results showed that sonication could improve color, texture, overall acceptance and delayed staling of pan bread. Sonication with 70% amplitude in 5 min was the best treatment. Treatment containing 4% soy flour had the best porosity texture and sensory properties. In comparison between sonication and soy flour addition, sonication was the best treatment for improving color, texture and delay staling.  

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The aim of this study was to extract astaxanthin from banana shrimp (Fenneropenaeus merguiensis) using ultrasound assisted method and to investigate its antioxidant properties. Extraction with organic acetone solvent was performed by soaking on a magnetic stirrer at room temperature for 5, 10, and 15 minutes, as well as neutralization tests of DPPH and ABTS free radicals. Fe³⁺ ion reduction was carried out. One-way analysis of variance was used for statistical analysis of the data. The best astaxanthin yield was 79.5±0.012 µg/g in the conditions of 20 minutes of magnetic stirrer at ambient temperature with 400 watts of ultrasound for 10 minutes, and the lowest average yield was observed in the condition of 15 minutes of magnetic stirrer at ambient temperature with 400 watts of ultrasound with a time of 15 minutes with a value of 69.3±0.049 µg/g. The findings of all three ABTS, DPPH, and Fe3+ ion reduction tests revealed that the settings were 20 minutes of magnetic stirrer at ambient temperature followed by 10 minutes of 400 watts of ultrasound. In summary, the results of this study demonstrated that using ultrasound for a shorter period of time has a better effect, while increasing the time diminishes the yield and antioxidant qualities.

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Phenolic compounds, especially those of plant origin, constitute an essential part of the human diet, and are of considerable interest due to their antioxidant properties. In this study, Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE), Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE), as well as Maceration Extraction (ME) methods were applied for phenolic compounds’ extraction from pistachio green hull. Response surface methodology was employed to optimize the extraction conditions as regards the yield of the compounds. A Central Composite Design (CCD) was employed to investigate the effects of three independent variables, namely liquid-to-solid ratio (8-20 times), temperature (25-65 °C) and time (5-45 minutes) on the dependent variable (level of total phenolic compounds). The results indicated that within the same extraction time, the extraction yield through UAE was higher than those in ME and MAE methods. Correlation coefficients (R2) of the models for UAE, MAE and ME methods were 0.95, 0.96 and 0.94, respectively. The optimal conditions for extraction of phenolic compounds from pistachio green hull through ME, UAE, and MAE methods were 20(v/w), 65°C, 45 minutes; 20(v/w), 65°C, 25 minutes; and 20(v/w), 65°C, 45 minutes, respectively. Under optimized conditions the experimental values well agreed with the values predicted by the proposed models.

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In current investigation a quality control ultrasonic system has been presented for detecting microbial contamination of UHT milk packages. This system is able to detect microbial contamination of milk packages without opening them. Microorganisms’ growth causes some changes in physical and chemical properties of milk resulting in changes of ultrasonic properties of milk. In this study amplitude and time of flight of ultrasonic waves were measured. The center frequency of piezoelectric discs was 1.02 MHz and all of experiments were done in temperature 35°C. Ultrasonic tests were conducted for microorganisms Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aurous and Bacillus cereus. The results showed that different bacteria’s metabolisms affected chemical properties of milk and detecting process of microbial contamination. Ultrasonic system was able to detect microbial contamination after 7.25 to 12.5 h. from microbe injection. Also, the results showed that ultrasonic system can detect microbial contamination in various values of acidity and pH of milk packages.

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Recently there has been much attention to use of natural ingredients instead of synthetic compounds as food additives, dye and drug. Red beets have Betacyanins, which is used as the color of ice cream, jams and canned fruits. Today, there is a growing demand for the development of more efficient and effective methods to extract the active ingredients contained in the plant material. The aim of this study is extracting from red beet by maceration and ultrasonic methods and comparison extracts features based on the extraction efficiency, the extraction rate of Betacyanin and Betaxanthin  pigment, total sugar and soluble solids. Extraction was performed using both ultrasound and maceration with water and ethanol and water - ethanol 1:1 as solvents. Results showed that extraction by ultrasound with water-ethanol has highest (62%) and extraction by maceration with ethanol has lowest (4.8%) efficiency. In Ultrasonic extraction method by water solvent obtained the maximum amount of Betacyanin and the lowest amount of Betacyanin was related to maceration method by ethanol. The amounts of extracted Betaxanthin have no significantly difference in methods and the difference is in the type of solvents, So that water and water - ethanol solvents by absorption of 1.389 and 1.329, respectively, extracted more Betaxanthin  in compared to ethanol with absorption of 0.3. Highest and lowest sugar levels were extracted by water (1.48M) and ethanol (1.146M) respectively. Ultrasound method also extracts more sugar (1.589M) compared to maceration extraction methods (0.994M). Overall, we can conclude that the use of ultrasound method for the extraction of red beet, is more appropriate due to more efficiency in less time. With this method, more pigments and sugar were extracted in compare with maceration method. Among the solvents that used in this study, water has extracted more Betacyanin, Betaxanthin and sugar from redbeet.  

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The use of Ultrasound in food industry is the main issue in research and development .Regarding to the wide application of modified starches in food industry and their associated hazards, the aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of modifying physicochemical properties of wheat starch by ultrasound treatment, so 6 samples of 10% wheat starch suspension was prepared and treated by 200 and 400 W ultrasound probe and also ultrasound bath for 15 and 30 minutes. Solubility, Swelling power, Oil absorption, Turbidity and SEM tests was performed to assess the physicochemical changes of ultrasound treated starches. According to the obtained results, the highest solubility and oil absorption and the lowest swelling power was related to the samples treated by 200W ultrasound probe. .  This sample also showed the most transparency after 15 min treatment and did not have any significant difference with control sample. Scanning  electron microscopy images of samples also showed complete disintegration of the granular structure of the samples treated by 200 w ultrasound probe for 15 and 30 minutes while the structure of other samples were changed a little.  

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Sour-orange (Citrus aurantium) seed oil was extracted by ultrasound-assisted, heat reflux, and Soxhlet extraction methods and their physical (melting point, viscosity, specific gravity, refractive index, and color) and chemical (acid value, acidity, peroxide value, iodine value, saponification value, and ester value) properties were investigated. Results showed although that some properties of the sour-orange seed oil such as acid value, acidity, peroxide value, iodine value, melting point, viscosity, and color were affected by the extraction method but its other properties such as saponification value, ester value, specific gravity, and refractive index were not affected by extraction method. In addition, the results of this study indicated that the sour- orange seed oil has some advantages such as low free fatty acid, low acid value, low peroxide value, low melting point, high saponification value, and high ester value. Therefore, the sour-orange seed oil can be introduced as suitable edible oil.

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    In this study to determine the effect of sonication time and intensity on the activity of the alpha-amylase, Aspergillus Oryzae PTCC 5164 as a Producer of enzyme was used in the solid staste fermentation system.  A combination of wheat and barley (0:100, 50:50, 100:0) as a substrate, Ultrasound with the intensity treatment (35, 5/67 and 100%) and 5, 10 and 15 minutes were used. Statistical analysis with software Design Expert 6.0.2 showed that the effect of ultrasound on enzyme produced in culture platform is different. Alpha-amylase production with barley as the substrate had more resistant during the sonication. Also by increasing the time and intensity of sonication, negative effects of cavition became more apparent and enzyme activity decreased. Diminishing activity of the alpha-amylase produced, depends on the duration and intensity of sonication and combination of solid culture. Probably the π₀ → π* amide transitions and secondary structural components, especially b-sheet, of the enzyme was significantly influenced by ultrasound.

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